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Copper losses occur due to the resistance of the transformer windings. These losses vary with the load current and are calculated as:

P_cu = I²R

Where:

• I = Current through the winding
• R = Resistance of the winding

Copper losses are also called "variable losses" because they change with the load.

Core losses (iron losses) consist of two components:

1. Hysteresis Loss: Energy lost due to the magnetic domains in the core material reversing alignment with the alternating magnetic field.
2. Eddy Current Loss: Energy lost due to circulating currents induced in the core material.

Core losses are relatively constant and occur whenever the transformer is energized, regardless of the load. They depend on:

• Core material
• Flux density
• Frequency
• Core construction

• Select appropriate core material (e.g., amorphous metal for high efficiency)
• Optimize the core cross-sectional area to reduce flux density
• Use thicker conductors to reduce resistance
• Implement proper cooling to maintain optimal operating temperature
• Consider autotransformer design for applications with small voltage differences

• Operate transformers close to their rated capacity for maximum efficiency
• Use multiple smaller transformers instead of one large transformer when load varies significantly
• Implement load management strategies to balance phases
• Regularly maintain transformers to prevent efficiency degradation
• Monitor transformer temperature and loading conditions